[ RadSafe ] Journal Alert: "Journal of Rad Protection" on Hot Particles in the environment
John Jacobus
crispy_bird at yahoo.com
Mon Aug 27 16:20:44 CDT 2007
I received this through a journal alert feature, and
thought it would be of interest to some on this list.
*Journal of Radiological Protection*
Volume 27, September 2007
http://www.iop.org/EJ/toc/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A
Nairn conference supplement
Geoffrey Webb, Kins Leonard and James Penfold
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A1-A2
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/E02
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/E02/jrp7_3a_e02.pdf
'If seven maids with seven mops
Swept it for half a year,
Do you suppose,' the Walrus said,
'That they could get it clear?'
Through the Looking Glass, Lewis Carroll
The discovery in 1983 of a particle of irradiated
nuclear fuel the size of a grain of sand on the
Dounreay foreshore led to a massive monitoring and
research effort over more than two decades. The site
operator, the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority
(UKAEA), undertook work to determine the source of the
particles, what happened to them in the marine and
littoral environment and what might be their effect on
human health. A number of papers were published that
described specific studies, but to try to ascertain
the overall state of the problem a conference was
convened in 2005 with the specific topic of the
'Dounreay Hot Particles'. The conference was organised
by the UKAEA in conjunction with the Scottish
Environment Protection Agency, British Nuclear Energy
Society and the Institute of Environmental Management
and Assessment. This was held at Nairn in Scotland on
30--31 August 2005 and has therefore become known as
the 'Nairn Conference'.
Topics covered include monitoring of local beaches,
tracking the movement of seabed sediment, the
development of seabed monitoring technology, material
analysis of particles, the risks to public health, and
working with stakeholders to identify the Best
Practicable Environmental Option. It was co-chaired by
Dr Monty Charles, of the University of Birmingham, Dr
John Crofts, Director of Safety and Assurance with
UKAEA, and Norman Harrison, Director of UKAEA,
Dounreay, who said: 'There are few issues in the
decommissioning of Britain's civil nuclear legacy that
match the level of scientific and stakeholder interest
in the particles in the marine environment at
Dounreay. Fragments of irradiated nuclear fuel up to
40 years old are scattered through the sediment of the
seabed and mobilised periodically by the natural
forces of the sea.'
No proceedings were issued, so to provide a vehicle
for publication of the papers documenting the
investigation of this unique situation the Journal of
Radiological Protection decided to publish this
supplement, containing a selection of the best
(peer-reviewed) papers from the conference.
Once the scale of the problem became apparent as a
result of more concentrated monitoring, which has so
far identified more than a thousand particles, then
attention focused on the site to identify those
processes in the past that could have led to discharge
of particles and to check whether any current
processes continued to do so. These studies did not
positively identify any processes in the 1990s or
subsequently that could give rise to particles so the
primary source was the accumulated material in the
environment. A number of papers characterise more
precisely the nature of the particles in terms of
their physico-chemical nature, radioactivity and their
likely sources.
Monitoring of the environment has been undertaken
since before the start of operations at the Dounreay
site. With the discovery of particles the monitoring
became more focused and new techniques have been
developed and introduced. The historical development
of the seabed particle monitoring programme is
described in one paper, with several others describing
particular techniques and results. Complementary to
these is a paper devoted to the on-site monitoring
orogramme.
A detailed knowledge of the shore environment is
essential to make use of the monitoring results in
predicting the fate of particles. Understanding the
risks to the public from their behaviour requires an
understanding of the physical properties of particles,
their pathways, the habitats and potential health
effects.
The bottom line in terms of radiological protection is
the potential effect on human health. This supplement
benefits from an in-depth treatment of the topic of
hot particle dosimetry from one of the most
knowledgeable authors in the field. There is also a
paper that assesses the impact on the marine ecosystem
itself by modelling various types of marine organisms.
Finally, whilst scientific knowledge of the nature of
the risks has been considerably improved, fishing
controls and warnings at beaches are still needed to
limit the potential for contact with particles. A
question remains as to what further action (if any)
should be taken to deal with the articles remaining in
the environment. Innovative work has been undertaken
at Dounreay to define a forward strategy that reflects
the trend for increased public involvement in
environmental decision-making. This is exemplified in
papers discussing stakeholder involvement and the
process to identify the Best Practicable Environmental
Option for dealing with the particles. The application
of a structured decision-making process, which is
ongoing, is explored and the latest developments are
presented. This is supplemented by some valuable
reflections on effective engagement with stakeholders.
Although the conference did not come to any formal
conclusions it is clear from the papers in this
supplement that the situation is now very well
characterised and it is time to reach agreement on
what needs to be done in the near and far future. This
stakeholder dialogue should be informed by the results
of the conference as recorded here.
Dounreay hot particles: the story so far
Frank Dennis, Graeme Morgan and Fiona Henderson
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A3-A11
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S02
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S02/jrp7_3A_S02.pdf
The first Dounreay hot particle (hereafter 'Particle')
to be formally identified was recovered from the
Dounreay foreshore in 1983. A further single Particle
was recovered from Sandside beach the following year.
Particles have been detected and removed from the
Dounreay foreshore regularly since 1984 and from the
offshore sediments since 1997. Since 1997, an
extensive research and development programme has been
undertaken to identify the source of Particles, their
movement and lifetimes in the marine environment, and
their potential effects on human and environmental
health.
It is now known that Particles were released to the
North Atlantic Ocean in the mid to late 1960s and
early 1970s. There is no evidence of an on-going
source of Particles from the Dounreay site today. The
source of Particles recovered from the Dounreay
foreshore and from local beaches is the cache
currently residing in marine sediments adjacent to
Dounreay.
Monitoring and sediment modelling studies indicate
that the Dounreay Particles are transported
approximately parallel to the coast in a
north-easterly direction. Studies to define contact
frequencies and risks to human health suggest that the
health risks associated with Particles are very low
There is, however, a significant perception of risk.
UKAEA will define a long-term Particle management
programme via the development of a best practical
environmental option (BPEO) facilitated through
consultation with all stakeholders.
History of monitoring beaches around Dounreay, and
some future work
Joe Toole
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A13-A21
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S03
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S03/jrp7_3A_S03.pdf
Since the first finds of radioactive particles on
beaches in north Caithness in the early 1980s, a
programme of beach monitoring has been and continues
to be undertaken by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy
Authority, UKAEA. This programme has evolved over the
years: gradually more intensive monitoring has been
required by the site regulator, the Scottish
Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA), while UKAEA
have managed the deployment of increasingly more
sophisticated radiation detection technology to meet
or exceed regulatory expectations. This paper provides
an overview of the beach monitoring programmes, and
summarises how many particles have been detected,
where they have been found, and how radioactive they
are. The large number of in situ measurements
typically recorded during surveys and the large areas
of beach sands monitored are illustrated by reference
to survey data acquired in the first half of 2005.
Finally, the implications of the detection of a small
particle at a large public beach some 23 km east of
the Dounreay site are briefly discussed, as is the
nature of some future work related to this
environmental legacy.
Development and use of radiation detection
technology for burieds eabed particles
Jim Cassidy and Joe Toole
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A23-A37
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S04
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S04/jrp7_3A_S04.pdf
>From the initial 1997 diver-based gamma survey of the
seabed sediments offshore of Dounreay, there has been
continuous development of instrumentation and
techniques. The initial contract surveyed randomly
chosen areas, to ascertain if any particles were
indeed present, since they had been found on the
Dounreay foreshore in previous years. In total 34
particles were located and recovered. The period
1998-2002 saw further diver-based surveys using more
sensitive and better designed detection systems. A
towed system incorporating the same detectors was also
deployed, covering extensive areas of the seabed.
Throughout this period a more detailed understanding
of particle dispersion emerged. The primary source of
particles was identified as the old diffuser, with
evidence for a dispersion plume heading north-east. In
late 2002, Fathoms selected a gamma spectrometry
system for trial and evaluation for possible future
subsea deployment. The positive results led to a field
trial being awarded by UKAEA for deployment of a
stationary platform with a 7.8 cm x 7.8 cm NaI
detector on the seabed at various offshore locations.
This trial identified particles by their 137Cs
photopeak and delivered the explanation for the gamma
activity banding in the 'anomalous' zone. This
successful trial led in 2004 to a joint Fathoms/UKAEA
lab trial of the SAM-935 system of the larger 10 cm x
10 cm x 40 cm NaI crystal, inside a marinising unit.
These proved to be fit for purpose and UKAEA tasked
Fathoms to deliver in 2004 a tracked remotely operated
vehicle (ROV) capable of deploying the larger
detectors to allow gamma mapping of seabed sediments,
up to a maximum depth of 100 m. Preliminary results of
the 2005 ROV work are presented.
Techniques employed for detection of hot particles
in the marine environment
G D Pillsbury
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A39-A44
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S05
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S05/jrp7_3A_S05.pdf
During the decommissioning of the Maine Yankee nuclear
plant, several methods were developed and employed to
survey for hot particles in the marine environment
surrounding the site. The methods used and the
sensitivities achieved in the search for
environmentally dispersed particles during the various
decommissioning activities performed are described in
detail. Surveys were performed on dry soil, exposed
marine sediment and submerged marine sediment. Survey
techniques ranged from the use of the basic NaI
detector coupled to a count rate meter to an intrinsic
germanium detector deployed in a submarine housing
coupled to a multi-channel analyser.
The initial surveys consisted of collecting samples of
marine sediment, spreading them out over a 1 m2
surface in a thin layer, and scanning the deposited
sediment by hand using a 5 cm by 5 cm NaI detector
coupled to a standard count rate meter. This technique
was later replaced by walkover scans with the 5 cm by
5 cm NaI detector moved in a serpentine pattern over
the sediment surface. By coupling the detector to a
'smart meter', an alarm set point could be used to
alert the surveyor to the presence of a particle
within the instrument's field of view. A similar
technique, with the detector mounted in a watertight
housing secured to the end of a pole, was also
employed to scan underwater locations. The most
sensitive method developed for performing underwater
surveys was the use of the intrinsic germanium
detector placed in a submarine housing.
Detailed descriptions of the methods employed and the
results obtained are presented. This work demonstrates
that there are several approaches to surveying for
discrete particles in the marine environment and the
relative merits of each are considered.
Past radioactive particle contamination in the
Columbia river at the Hanford site, USA
T M Poston, R E Peterson and A T Cooper
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A45-A50
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S06
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S06/jrp7_3A_S06.pdf
One closed-loop and eight single-pass plutonium
production reactors originally operated on the
Columbia river. During the 26 years of single-pass
reactor operations, small amounts of radioactive
particles were released in liquid discharges to the
Columbia river and were deposited in sediment and
cobble along the shoreline and on islands in the
river. Islands located adjacent to D island and
immediately downstream of D island had the greatest
density of particles. In 1979, the small particles
contained between 63 and 890 kBq of cobalt-60
activity. Dose rates emanating from those particles
ranged from 1 to 14 uGy h−1. Because of the
short half-life of cobalt-60 (5.3 y), the hot-particle
problem at Hanford has taken care of itself through
radiological decay. Some scientists have proposed that
it is economically and environmentally advantageous to
manage isolated low-level contaminated sites with
institutional controls until the activity decays and
the sites can be released rather than to pursue
expensive clean-up options.
Experience of monitoring beaches for radioactive
particles
Mike Davies, George McCulloch and Ian Adsley
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A51-A59
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S07
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S07/jrp7_3A_S07.pdf
This paper discusses some of the theoretical and
practical problems that are encountered in monitoring
beaches for hot particles. The experience is from
operating a near-continuous monitoring program, for a
period of eight years, on beaches near the Dounreay
site. The reliability and failure mechanisms of the
monitoring systems used will be discussed, together
with remedial actions employed. The viability and
performance of several types and configurations of
radiation detectors will be described, along with
methods by which particles might be detected, given
their response to buried particles. When large areas
are being monitored at high spatial resolution, which
is required for efficient particle detection, the
volume of data recorded for audit purposes can be very
large. The use and abuse of Geographical Information
Systems for this work is described. Other practical
aspects of performing surveys are also discussed,
including understanding health-and-safety
requirements; constraints imposed by weather, tides
and tidal speed; the logistics of making vehicles
available to perform the work; and how a particle
should be recovered once detected.
Studies at Dounreay on the repopulation of
offshore sediments by hot particles
Ron Crawford, Joe Toole and Steve Innes
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A61-A76
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S08
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S08/jrp7_3A_S08.pdf
Since 2000, much of the effort of diving surveys
offshore of Dounreay to locate the presence of
radioactive particles in the seabed sediments has been
directed to a programme of repopulation studies, in
which selected areas of the seabed have been surveyed
a number of times and cleared of identified particles
on each occasion.
This work has led to an understanding of the
distribution of particles within the seabed off
Dounreay. The two-population model originally proposed
by Atkinson (2001 UKAEA Document reference 000052) and
further refined into three populations by Clayton and
Atkinson (2002 UKAEA Document PSG Issue Note (02)33)
has been substantially confirmed by the extended data
set now available.
It is apparent that the upper layers of the seabed
sediments, containing a population of particles, are
essentially mobile. These sediments migrate over the
seabed driven by tidal wave and surge induced seabed
currents, recontaminating areas which have been
previously cleared of particles. The number of
particles present in this layer at any given location
has not been effectively reduced by the removal of
particles over the years, nor has the distribution of
activity within this population varied significantly.
The highest concentration of particles, and the most
active, reside close to and to the northeast of the
effluent diffuser outfall. Particle numbers and their
activity decrease with distance from the diffuser, and
the rate of decrease is significantly greater to the
southwest compared to the northeast.
By contrast, there is evidence that the population of
particles retained in the deeper sediments has changed
significantly as a result of the repopulation surveys.
Close to the diffuser, the population of particles
identified at depth during initial surveys is high and
contains significantly more highly active particles
than are found in the surface sediments. It is also
evident that once the deeper sediments are cleared of
particles, the level of repopulation of these
sediments over time is substantially reduced. There is
little mixing of the more deeply buried sediments.
Following a period of stormy weather over the winter
of 2004-05, repopulation surveys were initiated in
March 2005 to see if the effect of these storm events
could be detected in the distribution of particles in
the sediments. Little evidence for this was found, and
was limited to the recovery of a single particle of
high activity in the surface sediments of Repop 12
located over 2 km to the northeast of the effluent
diffuser.
The justification for continuation of the programme of
repopulation surveys is questioned, particularly on
health and safety grounds. The programme of surveys
may eventually exhaust the mobile particle population
such that repopulation rates decrease significantly
although there is no evidence as to when this may
occur. It is suggested that little further benefit
will be obtained from the continued retrieval of
additional and similar information.
Particle data management - turning data into
accessible information
J Bonniface and G J Coppins
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A77-A87
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S09
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S09/jrp7_3A_S09.pdf
The UKAEA has assigned significant resources to the
monitoring and retrieval of particles from the
vicinity of its site at Dounreay in the north of
Scotland. The monitoring, retrieval and analytical
processes each generate information that is required
for interpretative and record purposes. As significant
resources are made available for studying and
retrieving particles, the information collected must
be managed in a logical, stable and accessible manner
to protect the investment in information. If suitable
data management procedures are not in place there is a
high risk of data loss and duplication, and
stakeholders may be unable to discover what
information is already available or be unable to
access the existing information.
UKAEA Dounreay operates a geographic information
system (GIS) that interfaces with a data management
system known as IMAGES. These systems are used to
securely store and access a wide range of
environmental data including those relating to
particles. A case study is presented illustrating the
processes and systems involved with the collection,
storage, analysis and distribution of particle data.
The advantages gained through use of the GIS system
are considered in relation to alternative types of
record management system such as paper, and electronic
non-spatial systems. It is considered that the GIS
system offers very significant benefits in terms of
standardisation of data capture, security of storage
and increased accessibility of data compared with
other systems.
Management of particles detected on the Dounreay
site
O E Goss and M Liddiard
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A89-A96
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S10
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S10/jrp7_3A_S10.pdf
Much effort is involved in finding and retrieving
historic particles from the environs surrounding the
Dounreay nuclear site. Historic particles are also
present on the site itself, and these are dealt with
as part of the ongoing contaminated land management
regime. UKAEA operates systems of routine monitoring
on outside surface areas in order to limit exposure to
the workforce under the Ionising Radiation Regulations
1999. Contaminated material is removed when found, and
this material undergoes separation and analysis
routinely and where suspected to contain a particle.
Information regarding on-site particles has been built
up as a result of this. The distribution of on-site
particles provides details of the likely dispersion
pathways, and it is apparent that some interaction
occurs between the on-site and off-site particle
transport mechanisms.
The strategy for dealing with contaminated land at
Dounreay is to manage contamination in situ during the
decommissioning phase, where the risk of doing so is
acceptable. Particles present a very low risk to
Dounreay site workers but it is considered ALARP (as
low as reasonably practicable) to detect and remove
these particles. The particles are a legacy issue
arising from historic practices, which would not meet
today's safety standards. A continuing programme to
detect, remove and record their presence will be
required during the site closure process. This will be
necessary to meet current regulations and the likely
criteria for releasing the site for future re-use. The
final solution for the particles will not be known
until the Best Practicable Environmental Options study
is completed and further development of the site
end-point work has been reported. It is unlikely that
there will be a full removal of particles from the
total environment, so some form of long term
monitoring programme may be required plus a high
standard of record keeping.
Hot particle dosimetry and radiobiology - past and
present
M W Charles and J D Harrison
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A97-A109
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S11
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S11/jrp7_3A_S11.pdf
Small high-activity radioactive particles of nominal
diameter ranging from ~1 mm down to several um have
been a radiological concern over the last 30 years in
and around European and American nuclear reactor
facilities. These particles have often been referred
to as 'hot particles'. The 'hot particle problem' came
into prominent concern in the late 1960s. The
potential carcinogenic effects in lungs as the result
of irradiation by discrete small particles containing
alpha-emitting radionuclides, particularly 239Pu, were
claimed by some to be several orders of magnitude
greater than those produced by uniform irradiation to
the same mean dose. The phrase 'hot particle problem'
was subsequently used to refer to the difficulty of
predicting health effects for all microscopic
radioactive sources. The difficulty arose because of
the paucity of comparative human, animal or cell
studies using radioactive particles, and the lack of
validated measurement or calculational techniques for
dose estimation for non-uniform exposures. Experience
was largely restricted to uniform, large-area/volume
exposures. The concern regarding cancer induction was
extended to deterministic effects when the ICRP in
1977 failed to give adequate dose limits for dealing
with 'hot particle' exposures of the skin. Since 1980,
considerable efforts have been made to clarify and
solve the dosimetric and radiobiological issues
related to the health effects of 'hot particle'
exposures. The general recommendations of the ICRP in
1991 used the latest radiobiological data to provide
skin dose limits which are applicable to 'hot
particle' exposures. More recently the NCRP has
extended considerations to other organs. This progress
is reviewed and applied to the specific case of the
recent evaluation of potential health effects of
Dounreay fuel fragments commissioned by the Scottish
Environment Protection Agency (SEPA). Analyses of
possible doses and risks in this case indicate that
the principal concern following skin contact,
ingestion or inhalation is the possibility of
localised ulceration of skin or of the mucosal lining
of the colon or extra-thoracic airways.
Assessing the environmental risk from hot
particles in the vicinity of Dounreay - a case for
inaction?
D Jackson, D M Stone, K Smith, G Morgan and T
Shimmield
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A111-A118
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S12
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S12/jrp7_3A_S12.pdf
This study assesses the impact on species other than
humans associated with radioactive particles present
in the marine environment close to the UKAEA Dounreay
site, through a review of marine survey data, to
establish the distribution of species and the
likelihood of encountering a particle, and considering
retention, dissolution or absorption of the particle.
Assumptions are made regarding particle density,
distribution, size and bio-availability of the
radioactive materials. From this, impacts are assessed
against the likelihood of mortality or other
significant harm to individuals and interpreted in
terms of local populations. Results obtained indicate
that no significant impact, at the population level,
is likely to be observed. This does not preclude that
some individuals will be affected. It does, however,
suggest that any decision to remediate, if based
predominantly on environmental considerations, should
be cognisant of the damage caused by remediation
itself and subsequent exploitation of the environment
by humans.
'Hot particles' in the cold light of day:
principles for a stakeholder and public engagement
architecture relating to historic liabilities in the
marine environment
Rick Wylie
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A119-A128
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S13
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S13/jrp7_3A_S13.pdf
This paper discusses issues in stakeholder relations,
focusing on the challenges of liabilities management
associated with small fragments of irradiated nuclear
fuel hereafter termed particles (and sometimes termed
'hot particles' in the public domain, from which this
paper gets its title), produced over a number of
decades from now ceased operations at Dounreay. It
describes key problems confronting the nuclear
industry in developing a stakeholder-relations
strategy. Drawing upon examples of the stakeholder
activity at Dounreay, and using an ecological
metaphor, an innovative architecture for stakeholder
engagement relating to nuclear issues is outlined.
This is based upon the view that the solution of the
stakeholder issue must reflect the complexity and
connectivity of influences and interests within the
stakeholder environment. It is argued that the lay
public should be visualised as the stakeholder if an
effective stakeholder-relations strategy is to be
achieved. The importance of creating trust in a
context of scientific uncertainty is highlighted. This
will, it is argued, become an increasingly salient
issue in the thrust for openness and transparency, two
key drivers of nuclear industry public and stakeholder
relations, which could make the limits of scientific
knowledge and control more widely appreciated, and
bring to the fore the role of lay conceptions of
perceived risk.
Determining a strategy for managing radioactive
particles in the environment: establishing the BPEO
This paper has been revised following evolution of the
BPEO process.
J Love, G Morgan, F Dennis, M Liddiard and D
Galson
2007 J. Radiol. Prot. 27 A129-A141
Abstract:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S14
Full text PDF:
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/-alert=1221/0952-4746/27/3A/S14/jrp7_3A_S14.pdf
The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) is
in the process of identifying the long-term management
strategy for radioactive particles in the environment.
Application of the standard best practicable
environmental option (BPEO) methodology to this issue
is, however, complicated because particles reside in
both the on-shore and off-shore environments. Methods
for implementation of potential management options may
vary due to the differing characteristics of the on-
and off-shore environments. A different management
option may therefore be required, and furthermore the
dynamic interaction between these two environments
influences how these options could be combined to
provide an overall management strategy.
UKAEA has developed the standard BPEO appraisal
ptocess so that distinct management options for both
environments are initially assessed separately. This
allows identification of the key issues that influence
how they are combined into an overall management
strategy.
Over the last two years the public consultation on
this issue has progressed substantially and therefore
the paper presented at the Nairn conference in 2005
has been revised to take into account the work carried
out to date.
+++++++++++++++++++
"All of the old-timers knew that subprime mortgages were what we called neutron loans -- they killed the people and left the houses. . . .
"LOUIS S. BARNES, a partner at Boulder West, a mortgage banking firm.
-- John
John Jacobus, MS
Certified Health Physicist
e-mail: crispy_bird at yahoo.com
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http://mobile.yahoo.com/mobileweb/onesearch?refer=1ONXIC
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